Reken line/inch² om naar tesla [T] • Magnetic Flux Density Converter • Magnetostatica, magnetisme en elektromagnetisme • Compacte rekenmachine • Online omrekentools voor eenheden (2024)

American Wire Gauge

Did you know that not only electricians must understand the American Wire Gauge numbers?

Overview

It is amazing how the ideas of one individual can have an impact on the development of the human race. Michael Faraday was one such person. He may not have had a perfect understanding of modern mathematics, but he was an expert on the physics of electricity and magnetism and was the one to propose a theory on the interaction of electric fields.

Our modern society that relies heavily on electricity, magnetism, and electrodynamics would be impossible without the work of a group of brilliant scientists. We should especially note the work of Ampère, Ørsted, Henry, Gauss, Weber, Lorentz, and, of course, Maxwell. Their work resulted in combining the science of magnetism and electricity into one. This became the base for the work of numerous inventors, who created the foundations of the modern information society.

We are surrounded by electric motors and generators. They are our primary helpers and do heavy-duty work in the industry, the transportation sphere, and in everyday life. No modern person can imagine their household without a fridge, a vacuum cleaner, or a washing machine. Also important are microwaves, hairdryers, coffee grinders, mixers, and blenders. Those who love gourmet cooking also enjoy owning an electric meat grinder and a bread maker. Of course, an air conditioner is very important as well, but for those who cannot afford it, a fan will do the job.

Some men’s wish list is quite humble: for those who do not enjoy handiwork, it may include an electric drill at most. Some of us have dreamt of a Tesla electric car when trying to start our car at −40 °C temperatures. The hope is that the issue of getting the (electric) starter running in the cold and other petrol- and diesel-related problems can be forever forgotten once you switch to an electric car.

Electric motors are all around us: they move our elevators up and down and push our subway trains, electric multiple units, trams, trolleybuses, and high-speed trains. They bring water all the way up to the top floors of skyscrapers, operate fountains, remove water from mines and wells, roll steel, and are built into cranes to lift heavy items in the construction industry. They also provide numerous other invaluable services as part of various woodworking, metalworking, stone working, and other tools and machines, power tools, and mechanisms.

Electric motors are even used in powered exoskeletons for people with disabilities and veterans. Besides, they have also used to power all kinds of industrial and research robots.

The electric motors of today are present not only on Earth but also in space, such as in the Mars science laboratory "Curiosity". We can find them labor away on the surface of the Earth, underground, on the surface of the water, underwater, and even in the air. Very soon the airplane Solar Impulse 2 will complete a trip around the world (the article was written in November 2015). There are so many self-piloted drones in use today — they are also powered with electric motors. In fact, drones are so popular that many large corporations are currently lobbying for air space allocation for delivery drones.

Some History

In 1800 Alessandro Volta built a chemical battery, which was later called the voltaic pile. It was a truly incredible invention, later used by many researchers in their work because it allowed to encourage movement of electric charges in conductors, thus generating electric current. After the battery was built, numerous discoveries that used it followed in chemistry and physics.

For example, in 1807 a British scientist Humphry Davy was studying the electrolysis of molten sodium and potassium hydroxides, and during these studies produced sodium and potassium metals. Earlier in 1801, he discovered the electric arc, although the Russian scientific community believes that it was first discovered by Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov. This is because in 1802 Petrov described not only the electric arc, but also its uses for melting and welding metals, for reduction of metal oxides, which allowed extraction of metals from ores, and in lighting.

The most important discovery in the field of electricity and magnetism was by Hans Christian Ørsted, who, while conducting an experiment in front of his students during his 21st of April 1820 lecture, noticed that the needle of the compass fluctuated when the electric current running through a conductive wire was turned on and off. This was the first time to demonstrate a connection between electricity and magnetism.

André-Marie Ampère took the next step several months later after learning about Ørsted’s experiment. It is interesting to watch his thought process through the letters that he sent to the French Academy of Sciences. First, while watching the turn of the needle of the compass near a conductor with the current running through it, Ampère hypothesized that the magnetism of the Earth is also caused by currents that flow around the Earth from West to East. He concluded from this hypothesis that the magnetic properties of an object can be explained by the electric current that circulates through it. Then Ampère made a daring conclusion that magnetic properties of an object are determined by the electric current loops inside this object, while the magnetic interactions are determined not by special magnetic charges but by the movement of electric charges, that is, by the electric current.

Ampère’s experiments, which immediately followed to research the properties of these interactions, showed that conductors that have the current running in the same direction are attracted to each other, while those with the current running in opposite directions are repulsed. The conductors with a current that runs perpendicular to each other have no interaction with each other.

Here is the law that Ampère derived from these experiments, presented in his own words, and now known as Ampère’s Force Law:

“The force of the interaction of moving charges is proportional to the product of these charges and inversely proportional to the distance between them taken to the power of two. This is similar to Coulomb’s Law but this force also depends on the speed of the charges and the direction of their movement.”

Thus the fundamental forces that depend on speed were discovered in physics.

Michael Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic induction was fundamental because it laid foundations for future research in the field. Electromagnetic induction is the generation of electric current in a closed circuit when the magnetic flow through this circuit is changed. This phenomenon was also independently described by Joseph Henry in 1832. He also discovered self-inductance while working in this field.

Faraday’s public demonstration of electromagnetic induction was conducted on August 29, 1831, using the setup that he invented. This setup consisted of a voltaic pile, a switch, and an iron ring, which had copper wire wound into two coils on the opposite ends of the ring. One of the coils was connected to a battery, while the other was connected to a galvanometer. When the current flow was started or stopped the galvanometer registered the current of the opposite direction in the other coil.

In Faraday’s experiments the electric current, known as induction current was evident when a magnet was either introduced to or removed from the coil, which was connected to the circuit under consideration. Similarly, the current was also present when the smaller coil was either moved inside or removed from the larger coil from the previous experiment. The direction of the induction current reversed when a magnet or a smaller coil was introduced or removed. This behavior was described by the Russian scientist Heinrich Lenz in a rule that he defined in 1833 and that is now known as Lenz’s Law.

Based on the experiments that he conducted, Faraday derived a law for the electromotive force, which was later named Faraday’s Law after him.

Faraday’s ideas and experiment results were analyzed and generalized by another great fellow countryman of Faraday, the brilliant British physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell. His most famous works in this area include the four differential equations of electrodynamics, later named Maxwell’s Equations.

We should mention that magnetic flux density is featured as a magnetic field vector in three out of the four of these equations.

Definition of the Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic flux density is a vector, which describes the characteristics of the force of the magnetic field, in particular its effect on the charged particles at a given point in space. More specifically it determines the force F, which the magnetic field applies to a charge q moving with the velocity v. Magnetic flux density is denoted by the letter B (pronounced "vector b"), and calculated using the formula:

F = q [v∙B]

Where F is the Lorentz force of the magnetic field acting upon the charge q; v is the velocity of the charge; B is the magnetic flux density; and [v × B] is the cross product of vectors v and B.

We can also write this formula as:

F = q∙v∙B∙sin α

where α is the angle between vectors of velocity and of magnetic flux density. The direction of the vector F is perpendicular to the direction of the other two vectors and can be determined using the left-hand rule.

Magnetic flux density is the fundamental characteristic of a magnetic field. It is analogous to the electric field strength vector.

Magnetic flux density is measured in teslas (T) in SI, and in gausses (Gs or G) in Centimeter–Gram–Second system of units.

1 T = 10⁴ Gs

You can learn about other units for measuring magnetic flux density, which are used for various applications, in the unit converter section of this page.

Devices used to measure the magnitude of magnetic flux density are called teslameters or gaussmeters.

Physics of the Magnetic Flux Density

Depending on their reaction towards the external magnetic field, all substances and materials are divided into three groups:

• Diamagnets
• Paramagnets
• Ferromagnets

Faraday introduced the terms "diamagnetism" and "paramagnetism" in 1845. The notion of magnetic permeability is used for rating the degree of resistance of a substance or material to the magnetic field. SI uses an absolute magnetic permeability, which is measured in H/m, as well as relative magnetic permeability, which is equal to the ratio of permeability of the material and permeability of a vacuum. The magnetic permeability of diamagnets is slightly less than one, while the permeability of paramagnets is slightly higher than one. The magnetic permeability of ferromagnets is much higher than one and is nonlinear.

Diamagnetism is the ability of a substance to resist the external magnetic field which acts upon it, by becoming magnetized with the magnetic charge of the opposite direction. That is, diamagnets are repelled by the magnetic field. The atoms, molecules, and ions of the diamagnets gain a magnetic moment with the direction opposite to that of the external magnetic field.

Paramagnetism is the ability of a substance to become magnetized when affected by an external electric field. Compared to diamagnets, paramagnets are attracted by a magnetic field. The atoms, molecules, and ions of the paramagnet gain magnetic momentum in the same direction as the external magnetic field. When the magnetic field is removed, paramagnets become demagnetized.

Ferromagnetism is the property of a substance to magnetize spontaneously even when there is no external magnetic field acting upon it, or to stay magnetized when an external magnetic field stops acting upon it. Most of the magnetic moments of atoms, molecules, and ions are parallel to each other. This property is only present while the temperature is lower than the critical point, known as Curie temperature. When the temperature rises above this point, ferromagnets become paramagnets.

The magnetic permeability of superconductors is equal to zero.

The absolute magnetic permeability of air is approximately equal to the magnetic permeability of the vacuum. In various technical calculations, this value is assumed to be equal to 4π·10⁻⁷ H/m.

Properties of a Magnetic Field in Diamagnets

As we discussed earlier, diamagnets create an induced magnetic field, which has the opposite direction to the external magnetic field. Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect present in all substances. It is leveled off in paramagnets and ferromagnets due to other more powerful effects.

Some examples of diamagnets are noble gases, nitrogen, hydrogen, silicon, phosphorous, and pyrolytic carbon, as well as some metals like bismuth, zinc, copper, gold, and silver. Many other non-organic and organic substances including water are also diamagnets.

Diamagnets in a non-uniform magnetic field shift towards the weaker area of the field. We can say that the magnetic field lines are pushed outside of the field. This is how diamagnetic levitation works. A relatively strong magnetic field generated by modern magnets makes it possible to levitate not just various diamagnets but also small living organisms, mostly those whose body consists primarily of water.

Scientists from Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands were able to levitate a frog in a magnetic field with a magnetic flux density of about 16 T. NASA researchers levitated a mouse, which is a lot closer biologically to humans than a frog. They used a magnet based on superconductor technology.

When an alternating magnetic field is applied to them, all conductors display diamagnetic properties.

This phenomenon is based on the eddy currents also known as Foucault currents, generated within an alternating magnetic field in conductors. They resist the external magnetic field.

Magnetic Field Properties in Paramagnets

The interaction between a magnetic field and paramagnets is very different. The particles of paramagnets such as atoms, molecules, and ions have their own magnetic moment, and they align with the external magnetic field. This creates a resultant magnetic field, which exceeds the original magnetic field of the material in magnitude.

Paramagnets include aluminum, platinum, as well as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals such as lithium, cesium, sodium, magnesium, tungsten, and their alloys. Many other substances and elements are also paramagnets, including oxygen, nitrogen oxide, manganous oxide, ferric chloride, and many others.

The magnetic permeability of paramagnets is low, just a little more than one. Paramagnets in a non-uniform magnetic field are attracted to the areas where the magnetic field is stronger. When the effect of the magnetic field is removed, paramagnets do not stay magnetized. This is because the direction of the internal magnetic moments of the particles of paramagnets such as atoms, molecules, and ions is random due to the thermal motion.

Magnetic Field Properties in Ferromagnets

Ferromagnets are self-magnetized and thanks to this property they make up the naturally occurring permanent magnets, which are known to us from ancient times. In the past magnets were considered to have magical powers, and were used in various religious rituals, and even in building construction. The first prototype of the compass was invented by the Chinese explorers in the first–second century BC and was used by our curious ancestors to build houses according to the Feng Shui principles. Actual compasses were used for navigation through deserts along the Silk Road as early as the 11th century. Later use of compasses in naval navigation was paramount in the development of navigation and in discovering new sea trading routes.

Ferromagnetism is a manifestation of the quantum-mechanical properties of electrons, which have a spin that is their own magnetic dipole moment. In other words, electrons are like mini magnets. Each complete electron shell can hold only sets of pairs of electrons with opposite spins. This is to say that the magnetic field of these electrons is directed in the opposite direction from each other. The cumulative magnetic moment of the atoms with paired electrons is equal to zero, and thus only the atoms with an incomplete electron shell that have unpaired electrons can be ferromagnets.

Ferromagnets include transition metals (iron, copper, nickel), rare earth metals (gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium), and alloys of these metals. Alloys of non-ferromagnets with the above metals are also ferromagnetic, as well as the alloys of chrome and manganese with non-ferromagnets, and some of the metals of the actinide group.

The magnetic permeability of ferromagnets is much higher than one. The degree to which they can be magnetized when exposed to an external magnetic field is nonlinear. Ferromagnets display hysteresis, meaning that when the external magnetic field stops acting upon them they stay magnetized. One has to apply a magnetic field of the opposite direction to demagnetize ferromagnets.

The Russian physicist and chemist Alexander Stoletov was a pioneer in researching the properties of ferromagnets. The curve that represents the dependence between the magnetic permeability and the strength of a magnetic field is named after him.

Modern ferromagnets are widely used in science and technology because many devices use magnetic induction. For example, in information technology, they have been used in the first computers. The random access memory of these first computers had ferrite toroidal cores; the information was also stored on magnetic tapes, floppy disks, and hard drives. The latter are still produced in hundreds of millions per year.

Using Magnetic Fields in Electronics and Electrical Engineering

Magnetic fields are widely used in modern electrical engineering, primarily in power generation. For example, they are valuable in various electrical generators, voltage transformers, electromagnetic drives of various devices, instruments and mechanisms, in measurement science and technology, in various physical experimental setups, and in surge breaker devices used for protection from electric shock and for emergency shut-downs of electricity.

Electric Motors, Generators, and Transformers

In 1824 the British physicist and mathematician Peter Barlow described a hom*opolar motor that he invented. This motor is also known as Barlow’s wheel. It was a prototype of modern DC electric motors. This invention is also very valuable because it was created long before magnetic induction was discovered.

Most of the electric motors today use Ampere force, which is applied to a conducting loop in a magnetic field. This is what makes the motor move.

In 1831 Faraday created an experimental setup to demonstrate the magnetic induction phenomenon. It had a device now known as a toroidal transformer. The principle of operation used in this transformer is still used in many modern voltage and current transformers, regardless of their power, construction, and usage.

In addition to the work above Faraday also showed theoretically and proved experimentally the possibility of converting mechanical motion into electricity. For this work, he used the hom*opolar DC generator, which he invented. This generator became the prototype for all DC generators.

As for the first alternator, it was created by the French inventor Hippolyte Pixii in 1832. Later Ampere suggested adding a commutator, which allowed generation of pulsating DC current.

Most generators of electrical energy that use magnetic induction are based on the principle of the generation of electromotive force in a closed circuit that is situated inside an alternating magnetic field. During this process either a magnetic rotor rotates relative to a stationary starter coil in an alternator, or the rotor windings rotate against the stationary magnets of the stator in DC generators.

At the date of writing the most powerful generator in the world can generate up to 1750 MW of power. It was built by a Chinese company DongFang Electric for the Taishan Nuclear Power Plant.

In addition to the traditional generators, which convert mechanical energy into electric energy and back, there are also magnetohydrodynamic generators and motors, which have a different operating principle.

Relays and Electromagnets

An electromagnet invented by an American scientist Joseph Henry was the first actuating unit that used electricity. An electric bell that we all know so well is based on this mechanism. Henry later created a relay based on this design, and it became the first switching device, which had two binary states.

The telegraph is also based on the low-current relay. The messages were sent through the telegraph using Morse code, with the dots represented by a brief short circuit of the contact elements of the telegraph key on the transmitter side, and the dashes represented by a longer short circuit. During this process, the relay in the receiver closed the contact elements of a more powerful electromagnet. This lowered a graphite pen onto a moving paper ribbon, and the message being transmitted was recorded. The pen was then automatically lifted by a spring within the mechanism. In older systems, there were no ribbon and pen, and the receiving operator just listened to the dots and dashes on a telegraph sounder relay and manually wrote the message down on paper.

When the telegraph signals were transmitted long-distance, the relay was used to amplify weak DC signals. It turned on batteries at the intermediate stations along the way in order to allow further transmission of the signal.

Speaker Drivers and Dynamic Microphones

Electromagnetic speakers are widely used in modern sound engineering. The sound is generated by a vibrating voice coil, which is connected to a diaphragm. It is placed inside a magnetic field generated in the gap of a stationary permanent magnet, and the electric current of sound frequency runs through it. This causes the coil and the diaphragm to move and to generate audio signals.

Both dynamic microphones and speaker drivers use the same principle of operation, except that in the microphone it is the vibrating coil that has a mini diaphragm in the gap of a stationary permanent magnet that generates the electric signal of sound frequency.

Measuring Devices and Sensors

Despite the abundance of modern digital measuring devices we still use analog voltmeters of electrodynamic and induction type with moving coils, moving iron, and moving magnet.

All of the measuring systems above work based on the interaction between magnetic fields of the permanent magnet and of the coil that has electric current running through it, or the fields of the ferromagnetic core and of the coil with the electric current running through it, or between the magnetic fields of the coils with the current running through them.

Due to the relative lag of response of these systems they can be used to measure average values of the variables.

Dit artikel is geschreven door Sergey Akishkin

Unit Converter articles were edited and illustrated by Anatoly Zolotkov

Misschien ben je ook geïnteresseerd in de omrekentools in de categorie Magnetostatica, magnetisme en elektromagnetisme:

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Online omrekentools voor eenheden Magnetostatica, magnetisme en elektromagnetisme

Magnetostatica, magnetisme en elektromagnetisme

Magnetostatica is de studie van magnetische velden in systemen waarin de stromingen stabiel zijn. Elektromagnetisme is een onderdeel van de natuurkunde waarin wordt bestudeerd welke krachten optreden tussen elektrisch geladen deeltjes. Deze krachten worden in de theorie van elektromagnetische verschijnselen uitgelegd met behulp van elektromagnetische velden. Elektromagnetische wisselwerking is verantwoordelijk voor vrijwel alle fenomenen die voorkomen in het dagelijks leven, met uitzondering van zwaartekracht.

Een elektromagnetisch (EM) veld is een fysiek veld dat ontstaat door de verplaatsing van elektrisch geladen objecten. Het beïnvloedt het gedrag van geladen objecten in de buurt van het veld. Een elektromagnetisch veld kan worden gezien als een combinatie van een elektrisch en een magnetische veld.

Een elektrisch veld is een fysiek veld rondom elektrisch geladen deeltjes, geleiders met elektrische stromen en wisselende magnetische velden.

Een magnetisch veld is een fysiek veld rondom geleiders met elektrische stromen, bewegende elektronische deeltjes, magnetisch materiaal en tijdsafhankelijke elektrische velden. Een magnetisch veld bevat altijd een richting en een magnitude (of sterkte) en is daarom een vectorveld. Er zijn twee verschillende maar sterk aan elkaar gerelateerde velden waarnaar de term 'magnetisch veld' kan verwijzen. Deze velden worden weergegeven met de symbolen B en H.

Magnetic Flux Density Converter

Magnetic flux density (also magnetic field strength, magnetic intensity, magnetic induction, magnetic field B) is the amount of magnetic flux in a unit area perpendicular to the direction of magnetic flow. It is commonly denoted by the symbol B.

In SI units, the magnetic flux density is measured in teslas (T) and correspondingly magnetic flux is measured in weber (Wb) so that a flux density of one Wb/m² is one tesla. In Gaussian-CGS units, magnetic flux density is measured in gauss (G). 1 T = 10,000 G. The SI unit of tesla is equivalent to (newton·second)/(coulomb·meter).

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